Samhain - Part 1: Bonfires, Divination and Ancestors
After last week’s inundation, the skies have cleared, the sun is lending its warmth to the noticeably colder days and frosts continue their scourge. Autumn is in full swing and makes a wonderful backdrop for planning the final seasonal celebration of the year according to many ancient Celtic communities, the celebration of Samhain, which evolved into the modern-day Halloween.
There are many interesting facets to Samhain and so much information to share that I needed to split it into four parts. In this first part, we’ll explore the origins of Samhain, its evolution into Halloween and some of the traditions connected to this time of year including bonfires, divination, ancestors, and similar celebrations from around Europe such as the Spanish and Latin American Dia de los Muertos, the Finnish Kekri, Nordic and Germanic Vetrnætr, which includes dísablót and álfablót, and the Slavic Dziady. There’s also a tasty recipe, filled with symbols of good fortune, that you might like to try.
Samhain - Halloween’s Gaelic Roots
Samhain is a Gaelic word pronounced as sow-in or sa-wayne, originally called Samhainn in Scotland, and Shamhna in Ireland. It translates to summer's end and refers to the ancient Celtic festival marking the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter. The Manx called Samhain Houney or Hop-tu-Naa, which comes from Manx Gaelic songs that were traditionally sung during the festival and included the nonsense Hop-tu-naa as a refrain:
Shoh shenn oie Houiney; Hop-tu-naa - This is old Sauin night; Hop-tu-naa T'an eayst soilshean; Trol-la-laa. - The moon shines bright; Trol-la-laa. Kellagh ny kiarkyn; Hop-tu-naa - Cock of the hens; Hop-tu-naa Shibber ny gauin; Trol-la-laa. - Supper of the heifer; Trol-la-laa. 'Cre'n gauin marr mayd? Hop-tu-naa - Which heifer shall we kill? Hop-tu-naa Yn gauin veg vreac. Trol-la-laa. - The little speckled heifer. Trol-la-laa. Yn chione kerroo, Hop-tu-naa - The fore-quarter, Hop-tu-naa Ver mayd 'sy phot diu; Trol-la-laa. - We'll put in the pot for you. Trol-la-laa. Yn kerroo veg cooyl, Hop-tu-naa - The little hind quarter, Hop-tu-naa Cur dooin, cur dooin. Trol-la-laa. - Give to us, give to us. Trol-la-laa. Hayst mee yn anvroie, Hop-tu-naa - I tasted the broth, Hop-tu-naa. Scoald mee my hengey, Trol-la-laa. - I scalded my tongue, Trol-la-laa. Ro'e mee gys y chibber, Hop-tu-naa - I ran to the well, Hop-tu-naa As diu mee my haie, Trol-la-laa. - And drank my fill; Trol-la-laa. Er my raad thie, Hop-tu-naa - On my way back, Hop-tu-naa Veeit mee kayt-vuitsh; Trol-la-laa. - I met a witch cat; Trol-la-laa. Va yn chayt-scryssey, Hop-tu-naa - The cat began to grin, Hop-tu-naa As ren mee roie ersooyl. Trol-la-laa. - And I ran away. Trol-la-laa. Cre'n raad ren oo roie Hop-tu-naa - Where did you run to? Hop-tu-naa Roie mee gys Albin. Trol-la-laa. - I ran to Scotland. Trol-la-laa. Cred v'ad jannoo ayns shen? Hop-tu-naa - What were they doing there? Hop-tu-naa Fuinney bonnagyn as rostey sthalgyn. Trol-la-laa. - Baking bannocks and roasting collops. Trol-la-laa. Hop-tu-naa, Trol-la-laa. - Hop-tu-naa, Trol-la-laa. From Folklore of the Isle of Man, A. W. Moore, 1891
The short (1:22 mins) video below features a more modern version of Hop-tu-Naa.
Samhain was a significant event in Celtic culture, celebrated with various rituals and traditions to honour the dead, acknowledge the changing seasons, and prepare for the darker months ahead. The Celts revered this time as a liminal period when the boundary between the physical and spiritual realms was at its thinnest.
As the leaves turned golden and the days grew shorter, people gathered around bonfires to celebrate the bountiful harvest, make divinations, protect against malevolent spirits, and honour their ancestors. With the spread of Christianity, pagan practices were shunned or Christianised. In 731 AD, Pope Gregory III designated November 1st as All Saints’ Day, or All Hallows Day, to honour Christian saints and martyrs, with the preceding night becoming All Hallows’ Eve, or Hallow’een. November 2nd was dedicated as All Souls Day to incorporate the widespread practice of ancestor worship, by integrating the idea of comforting souls in Purgatory. The three days including All Saints' Eve (Halloween), All Saints' Day, and All Souls' Day were called Allhallowtide.
Samhain is mentioned in historical records primarily through Irish mythology and medieval texts. The earliest references to Samhain are found in Irish sagas such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn (Book of Invasions) and the Cath Maige Tuired (The Second Battle of Mag Tuired), which date back to the early medieval period. These texts depict Samhain as a significant festival marking the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter. Additionally, medieval Irish texts like the Sanas Cormaic (Cormac's Glossary) provide insights into the customs and rituals associated with Samhain, highlighting its importance in Celtic society.
Irish immigrants brought their Samhain/Halloween traditions to America and then re-exported the modern Halloween traditions around the world. Other European cultures also celebrated traditions similar to Samhain and these will explored later in the article.
The short (2:35 mins) video below features atmospheric imagery and the poem Our Darkest Night by contemporary Irish poet Stephen James Smith, celebrating Púca, Ireland’s Samhain/Halloween festival.
Bonfires
There is evidence throughout the Celtic world that bonfires were lit on Samhain eve in celebrations mirroring the Beltaine fires of Spring. These fires were traditionally need fires also called forced fires or living fires, meaning they were newly made using friction forces. I wrote about these fires in the article Beltane - Part 2: Fire.
Fires, especially need fires lit on Beltaine and Samhain, were believed to have protective and cleansing powers to drive away malevolent spirits and offer warmth and light during the darkening days of autumn. People would extinguish their hearth fires and relight them from the sacred bonfires to renew communal bonds and venerate the spirits that protected their families. In some places, livestock would be driven between two bonfires to purify and protect them against disease, before being brought back to their winter shelters.
The bonfires also served as focal points for communal gatherings, where people would feast, dance, and participate in divination, rituals to honour their ancestors and seek blessings for the coming year.
Divination
The thinning of the veil between this world and the ‘Otherworld’ (Tir an Nog in Irish) meant that Samhain was considered a fortuitous time for divination. Divination using stones laid around a fire was commonly performed in Scotland, Wales and Brittany, where each stone represented a member of the family or group. After dancing around the fire and performing long-forgotten rituals, the stones would be left overnight. In the morning, if they had been moved from their original position, the stone’s bearer was predicted to have a year of ill fortune, if they were mislaid, they predicted death.
Apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld in Celtic mythology and were often used in divination related to relationships and marriage. One method of divination that is still well-known and commonly practised involves peeling apples in one long strip and throwing the apple peel over the shoulder. The shape it forms, once it falls, is said to be the first letter of the future spouse’s name.
Another method of divination involved roasting two hazelnuts near a fire. One hazelnut would be named for the person roasting it and the other for the person they desired. It was considered a bad sign if the nuts jumped away from the heat but an excellent match was foretold if the nuts roasted quietly. The shape of egg whites dropped in water could be used to foretell the number of future children. Birds in flight, their number, direction and behaviour could also auger different fortunes. Young people would chase crows at Samhain to divine their fortune for the year.
Another commonly used method of divination involved the baking of special cakes or bannocks called barmbrack.
Barmbrack
Barmbrack, also called bairin (loaf) breac (speckled) is an Irish fruit bread traditionally baked for Halloween, similar to the Welsh bara brith. In many recipes, the dried fruit was soaked overnight in cold tea or whiskey. It was often baked with trinkets or charms to foretell the future for the next year: a pea meant no marriage; a stick meant relationship disputes; a piece of cloth meant bad luck; a bean meant poverty; a coin meant riches and good fortune; and a ring meant marriage.
I developed this Barmbrack Scone recipe as a fun and tasty way to ensure good fortune for Samhain and the ‘new’ year. It contains ingredients that are imbued with positive sentiments for the new year: pumpkin for abundance (fruit of the harvest and a fruitful womb full of seeds representing potential); dried apples for health; red currants or cranberries for love; crystalised ginger for passion; hazelnuts for wisdom; pecans for wealth; spices for fulfilment; and sugar for joy. If you wish, mark it with a cross to represent the tradition of Soul Cakes, which we will explore further in this article.
Ingredients:
2 cups self-raising flour (gluten-free option)
1 tbsp caster sugar
60g salted butter, chilled and chopped
½ cup of Greek yoghurt
½ tsp ground nutmeg
1 tsp cinnamon
2/3 cup mashed cooked butternut pumpkin
½ cup dried apples, chopped
½ cup dried red currants or cranberries, chopped
½ cup crystallised ginger, chopped
½ cup hazelnuts, chopped
½ cup pecans, chopped
Extra water and yoghurt (for brushing)
Directions:
Preheat oven to 220°C/200°C fan forced. Line a baking tray with baking paper. Position the oven rack in the top half of the oven.
Chop dried apples, dried red currants or cranberries, crystallised ginger, hazelnuts and pecans into small pieces and place in a mixing bowl.
Mix mashed pumpkin and yoghurt with the apples, ginger and berries.
Sift flour, nutmeg, cinnamon, and sugar into a bowl. Add butter. Using fingertips, rub the butter into the flour mixture until the mixture resembles fine breadcrumbs.
Make a well in the centre of the mixture. Add pumpkin mixture. Using a flat-bladed knife, stir until a sticky dough forms. Turn out onto a lightly floured surface. Knead gently until just smooth.
Using a lightly floured rolling pin, gently roll the dough out until 2cm thick. Use a cutter or drinking glass to cut out scones. Press the leftover dough together. Repeat to make 12 scones. Cut a cross into the top of the scones if you wish.
Place scones, just touching, on the prepared tray. Brush with yoghurt and water mixture. Bake for 12 to 15 minutes or until golden and hollow when tapped on top. Serve with butter.
Ancestor Veneration
Central to Samhain and Halloween is the practice of ancestral worship, which not only includes veneration of ancestors in direct lineage but also the First Ancestors, the Gods. In Ireland, these Gods were often conceived as members of the Tuatha de Dannan or the Fir Bolg, who disappeared from the land into the Otherworld through barrows (burial mounds) scattered all over Celtic lands. The Irish call them Aos sí or aes sídhe, and they are called daoine sìth in Scottish Gaelic, meaning ‘people of the mounds’. To avoid the attention of these notoriously mercurial, capricious and sometimes malevolent beings, people called or described them by different names, such as faeries, Fae or Fair Folk, and Good People.
The Celts believed that during the time of Samhain, the spirits of the dead, ancestors and the Fair Folk, returned to visit the living. To honour, appease and request guidance from the dead, people would hold tribal or clan feasts and a place was set at the feasting tables, with offerings of food and drink for the souls who had passed on to the Otherworld. This custom was known as the Fleadh nan Mairbh (Feast of the Dead) and was often held over three days.
It is not uncommon on Samhain night to see the returned dead of the family seated around the kitchen hearth.
Kevin Danaher (1972) The Year in Ireland, Mercier Press.
Household lights were often extinguished at dusk during the Samhain festival to avoid confusing the travelling spirits. Other household and region-specific traditions to welcome the dead were practiced such as this one from County Tyrone:
All Soul's Eve is sacred to the memory of the departed. After the floor has been swept and a good fire put down on the hearth, the family retires early, leaving the door unlatched and a bowl of springwater on the table so that any relative who had died may find a place prepared for him at his own fireside.
Rose Shaw (1931) Carelton's Country, Talbot Press Limited, pg 26
As previously mentioned, the Christian church transformed this ancient veneration of ancestors into the celebration of All Souls Day, observed on November 2nd. In many places across Europe, the day begins with the tolling of church bells inviting people to pray for the souls of the departed. Christians may attend special Masses or services dedicated to praying for the souls of the departed. They may also offer prayers at home or the graveside. Visiting the gravesides of deceased loved ones is common practice and frequently involves cleaning graves and decorating them with flowers, candles, and offerings. Lighting candles in the home, church or at the gravesite symbolises prayers for the souls of the departed and serves as a way to remember and honour them.
In some communities, processions are held to honour the dead, like the loud and colourful Spanish and Latin American festival Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), which you can explore in a previous article.
Sharing a meal with family and friends in remembrance of the departed is also common practice for All Souls Day and frequently includes setting a place at the table for the departed, and serving food and drink so the departed souls can enjoy a meal with their loved ones. Sometimes a candle is placed at the empty place setting and lit to remember and honour the departed, and is common practice for military units in many European countries. Some traditions, called dumb supper, also involve eating the meal in silence.
Offerings of food were an important part of ancestral veneration and in the British Isles, this evolved into the practice of baking and offering soul cakes. Soul cakes are small, round cakes typically spiced with ingredients such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger, and sometimes marked with a cross on top to symbolize the soul's passage from Purgatory to Heaven. The earliest reference to soul cakes comes from medieval times. They were seen as a gesture of charity and a way for the living to remember and assist the souls of the departed. Poor individuals, often children and beggars, would go door-to-door on All Souls' Day, singing or reciting prayers in exchange for soul cakes. This custom evolved into what we now recognize as trick-or-treating, which we will explore in the second article on Samhain, scheduled for next week.
Those ‘going a-souling’ often sang little songs or ditties that differed according to their location:
Soul! Soul! For a soul-cake I pray good misses, a soul-cake! An apple or pear, a plum or a cherry, Any good thing to make us merry. One for Peter, two for Paul Three for Him who made us all. Up with the Kettle and down with the Pan, Give us good alms and we'll be gone. Wales, West Midlands and Hertfordshire Soul, Soul for an apple or two, If you've got no apples, pears will do; If you've got no pears ha'pennies will do, If you've got no ha'pennies God bless you. Staffordshire A soul, a soul for a soul cake One for Jack Smith And one for Tom White And one for myself and I'll bid you goodnight. My clothes are very ragged My shoes are very thin I've got a little pocket To put three halfpence in And I'll never come a souling Till another year Somerset
Other Samhain-like Celebrations
Finnish - Kekri
Kekri, is a traditional harvest festival celebrated in Finland, marking the conclusion of the agricultural year and the onset of the dark winter season. It typically occurred around late October or early November. During this time, people gathered to express gratitude for the harvest with lavish feasting, drinking and dancing. Overindulgence was important during Kekri as it was considered a bad omen for the following harvest if someone went hungry. The amount of meat eaten represented how fat the cattle would grow in the next year, while the amount of beer consumed helped to make the barley grow.
Customs to honour ancestors were also important during this time. On the evening before the feast day, the head of the household would perform a ritual to invite the spirits of their deceased relatives to join the feast. This involved pouring a trail of ale from the road to the farmstead and around the house, blessing the homestead and family with good fortune for the coming year. The family sauna was cleaned and heated for use by the ancestor spirits and a votive table with offerings of meat and drink was placed beside the sauna. A place was also laid for ancestors at the feasting table.
Similarly to Samhain, it was believed that the veil between worlds was thin at this time of year, jakoaika the ‘dividing time’, when people believed they lived between the past and the future year. Malevolent spirits roamed the lands and needed to be kept at bay with bonfires and people wore costumes to confuse them. Men dressed as Kekripukki adorned with goat horned masks and fur coats worn inside out and upside down. Women dressed as Kekrittäri dressed in white from top to bottom, their faces covered with white paint or gauze. The Kekripukki and Kekrittäri then roamed from house to house requesting beer and food, similar to the souling or guising of Samhain and Halloween trick-or-treating. If they were turned away, they would threaten to break something, usually the household oven.
Kekri was also an important time for divination to foretell future partners and conduct love spells. A common method for divining the future included interpreting the shapes made by molten tin poured into cold water.
Modern Kekri celebrations have evolved from familial celebrations to municipal or organisational holidays. Celebrations now typically involve city-wide feasts, dances, musical performances, street markets etc. Some places, such as the city of Kajaani burn a giant goat made of straw, called Kekripukki. Although modern Halloween traditions from the United States have begun to penetrate Finnish Kekri traditions, there is a growing interest in folk culture and a resurgence in household Kekri celebrations.
Norse and Germanic - Vetrnætr (Winter Nights)
The first three days of the winter season in old Nordic and Germanic regions were called Winter Nights (vetr-naetr in Old Icelandic), which began twenty-eight days after the Autumn equinox, around the end of October and beginning of November. This was marked with an important festival in the pre-Christian Norse calendar, known as dísablót or dísirblót. In Norse mythology and Germanic folklore, the Dísir2 (singular: dís) were female supernatural beings associated with fate, ancestry, and protective spirits. They were often regarded as guardian spirits of particular families or lineages. During dísablót, offerings and sacrifices were made to the dísir, often at sacred sites or mounds associated with ancestral burial grounds.
These offerings could include food, drink, and other symbolic items to seek the favour and protection of the dísir for the well-being and prosperity of the clan and its future generations. The dísir were believed to influence the shaping of people’s destinies and had the power to both bless and curse. Their veneration emphasised the importance of ancestral ties and the connection between the living and the dead. Dísablót has also been associated with the Germanic and Anglo-Saxon celebration of Modranecht (Mothers’ Night), which is celebrated at the winter solstice and was explored in a previous post, Winter Solstice Traditions of the Ancient Celts, Romans, and Germanic People.
Winter Nights also involved a more private custom, which occurred in homesteads and was only attended by close kin. This tradition was called álfablót, meaning Elven sacrifice. Not much is known about what transpired during álfablót, as strangers were not welcome on homesteads during the celebration and were turned away, in stark contrast to the usual Nordic hospitality. It is known that the celebrations were administered and rituals conducted by women.
The Norse believed that álfar (Elves) are nature spirits and guardians, often depicted as ethereal beings associated with natural landscapes such as forests, rivers, and mountains. Similarly to the Celtic Good People or Faeries, they live in or are connected to grave mounds and are believed to possess great wisdom and magical powers, influencing the fertility of the land and the prosperity of communities. Though they can be benevolent and protective, they are also known to be unpredictable and sometimes capricious, requiring offerings and rituals to maintain their favour.
Slavic/ Eastern European - Dziady
Dziady is a traditional Slavic festival observed primarily in Poland, Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. The word ‘dziady’ translates to ‘forefathers’ or ‘ancestors’ in English, reflecting the festival's focus on honouring the deceased and maintaining a connection with familial lineages. Dziady is typically held at the end of autumn, although it is sometimes celebrated twice a year in spring. It is a time when families come together to pay homage to their ancestors' memory and offer prayers for their souls.
During Dziady, various rituals are performed to commemorate the departed. Families visit cemeteries to tend to gravesites, cleaning and decorating them with flowers and candles. Lighting candles at the graves is a common practice, symbolising remembrance and spiritual guidance for the souls of the deceased. Additionally, offerings such as food, drink, or symbolic items may be left at the gravesites as a sign of respect and to ensure the well-being of the ancestors' spirits. Some areas also prepare saunas for their ancestors to bathe.
Sometimes fires were kindled at crossroads to prevent demons (souls of people who died suddenly from suicide, drowning or violence) from being born. In some parts of Poland, whenever someone passed a place where someone died through violence, they were obliged to throw a sprig at the stake erected on the site, which was then burned every year.
Wandering beggars were also called dziady and viewed as mediators between this world and the ‘otherworld’. People offered food or coins and requested the beggar-dziady to pray for the souls of their departed loved ones. Providing food to beggars was an important part of soul rituals and was a form of feeding the ancestors.
The Catholic and Orthodox churches have either tried to ban or marginalise these practices, or they have been syncretised with Christian celebrations. However, it is still a common custom in Poland, Belarus and parts of Russia to carry a symbolic meal in clay pots to the graves of the dead.
I hope you enjoyed this deep dive into the history of Samhain/Halloween, including customs such as bonfires, ancestor veneration, and divination. Do you celebrate any of the traditions we explored: Samhain, Halloween, Dia de los Muertos, Kekri, Vetrnætr (dísablót/álfablót), or Dziady? Or do you celebrate other, similar holy days to mark the end of autumn and the start of winter or to venerate ancestors?
Why not try making your own barmbrack, soul cakes, or the recipe in the article? Or do you have another traditional food you like to cook at this time of year? Let us know and share a photo if you like.
Stay tuned for next week when we explore trick-or-treating, the art of the scare, and Samhain/Halloween games.
Another fascinating read! I have made a copy of your recipe for Barmbrack Scones - can't wait to try it out.