Winter Solstice: Echoes of the Ice Age
As the days grow shorter and the chill of winter settles in, nature prepares for a celestial event that marks a significant turning point in the seasonal cycle. The winter solstice, also known as the 'shortest day' or 'longest night,' holds great cultural and spiritual significance for many communities around the world. In the southern hemisphere, the winter solstice is just around the corner, approaching on the 22nd of June. It is a time when we gather to honour the enduring power of nature and the ancient traditions that have shaped our understanding of this celestial phenomenon.
The winter solstice occurs when the Earth's axial tilt is farthest away from the sun, resulting in the shortest period of daylight and the longest night of the year. It marks the official beginning of winter in many cultures, and its arrival brings with it a sense of introspection, renewal, and the promise of brighter days to come. Across cultures and throughout history, the winter solstice has been celebrated as a time of transition, where darkness gives way to light and the cycle of life begins anew.
In this post, we will delve into the fascinating world of the Sámi people and explore the cult of the reindeer/deer mother, a central aspect of Sámi mythology and spiritual traditions. Join us as we uncover the echoes of the Ice Age that still resonate in the rituals and customs of this ancient culture, and discover the deep wisdom and resilience that emerges during this sacred time.
The Ice Age
Over 2 million years ago, early humans migrated to Europe and adapted to the fluctuating Ice Age climate, marked by large expansions and contractions of ice sheets across different parts of Europe at different times. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet, also known as the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, was the largest and most significant during this period. It covered much of present-day Scandinavia, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and parts of Russia. The ice sheet extended southward, covering the Baltic region and had a significant impact on the topography of the area. Other glaciations also occurred in different regions of Europe at different times. The British Isles experienced extensive glaciation, with ice sheets covering large parts of what is now the United Kingdom, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Further south, the Alps were also heavily glaciated. These Alpine glaciers extended across the mountain range, reshaping the valleys, and carving out iconic features such as the U-shaped valleys and moraines. Other mountainous regions in Europe, including the Pyrenees and Carpathians, also experienced glaciation.
The ice sheets reached their maximum extent during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 26,000 to 19,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. This glacial expansion and contraction influenced the movement and adaptation of early humans in Europe and is known as the Palaeolithic period. Palaeolithic humans, our own species of Homo sapiens as well as Homo neanderthalensis, were well adapted to survive and even thrive in their environment. They were hunter-gatherers, living in small nomadic tribal or family groups spread widely through a sparsely populated landscape. They developed and used stone tools, hunted animals, fished, and gathered edible plants for survival. The availability of food sources varied with the climate and region, but it generally included large game animals like mammoth, reindeer, and bison, as well as smaller animals, fish, shellfish, nuts, and berries.
These early humans had rich cultural and ritual traditions that were deeply interconnected with their environment and survival strategies. Palaeolithic cultures developed intricate belief systems based on polytheistic animism and shamanism.1 They held a deep reverence for nature and relied on their intimate knowledge of the environment for survival. Rituals and ceremonies involving dancing, singing, and storytelling played a significant role in Palaeolithic cultures and were often related to hunting, fertility, and seasonal changes. Cave paintings, rock engravings, and sculptures were created as a means of communication, storytelling, and possibly as part of religious or ritual practices. They often depicted animals, hunting scenes, and symbols associated with fertility and spirituality.
Traditional hunter-gatherer cultures of the Palaeolithic period transitioned to the Neolithic in most of Europe around 10,000 years ago, with the emergence of agriculture, domestication of animals, settled communities, technological advancements, and the development of complex social and religious systems.2 However, the hunter-gatherer way of life persisted until relatively recently for the people of the northern European tundra, particularly the Evenki of Russia, China, and Mongolia, and the Sámi, who live in the northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia.
The Sámi: People of the Reindeer
The Sámi, also called Saami, are indigenous peoples from the northern regions of Scandinavia, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and parts of Russia. They are defined by their Sámi languages and culture, which stems from the larger Uralic language family and includes Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian. These cultures and languages are distinct from the rest of Europe, which mostly belong to the Indo-European language group that originated from a single prehistoric language called Proto-Indo-European. The Uralic language and culture originated from people who were indigenous to the region along the Volga River in what is now Russia. During the Corded Ware culture period, which spanned from around 3000 BCE to 2300 BCE, Uralic people began to migrate northward, some settled in the frozen tundra of the Arctic and eventually became the Sámi people. Over the centuries, the Sámi developed a deep connection with the Arctic environment and have adapted their way of life to survive in these challenging conditions.
The Sámi have a long history of interaction and trade with neighbouring cultures, including the Norse, the Karelians, and the Russians. However, they have also experienced periods of marginalisation and cultural assimilation, particularly during colonisation efforts by surrounding nations. Despite these challenges, the Sámi have successfully maintained their cultural identity and traditions. They have a rich oral tradition, passing down stories, legends, and knowledge through generations. Traditional crafts, such as duodji (handicrafts), joik (vocal music), and gákti (traditional clothing), continue to play an important role in Sámi cultural expression. Today, the Sámi people are recognised as an indigenous community with their own parliament, known as the Sámediggi, in each of the four countries where they reside. Efforts to preserve and revitalize Sami culture, language, and rights are ongoing, as the Sámi assert their rights to self-determination, land, and natural resources.
The Sámi people are not homogenous, and their way of life varies based on their geographic location. Coastal Sámi communities have traditionally relied on fishing, seafaring, and maritime activities as their primary means of sustenance. On the other hand, the tundra-dwelling Sámi, often referred to as reindeer herders or nomadic herders have centred their livelihoods around the semi-domesticated reindeer. They engage in seasonal migration, following the natural grazing patterns of the reindeer herds across vast stretches of land.
The tundra-dwelling Sámi were traditionally nomadic hunter-gatherers following the herds of reindeer on their seasonal migrations across the northern landscape. They eventually semi-domesticated their herds to take advantage of reindeer milk and to use them for transportation but they still maintained their nomadic lifestyle. It wasn’t until the 17th Century that the Sámi’s nomadic way of life was restricted and they became reindeer herders in response to political and economic pressures.3 Despite these changes, the Sámi have maintained a rich cultural tradition centred around reindeer4, and remnants of Palaeolithic and later Neolithic customs can still be found in their rituals, beliefs, and way of life, although they have incorporated the Christian religion into their belief systems.
The short video below documents the life of the Dukha people of Mongolia, the last nomadic reindeer herders in the world. Although they are linguistically and culturally different to the Sámi, their nomadic way of life centred around migrating reindeer is similar to how the Sámi traditionally lived.
Reindeer Folklore
Reindeer were not only a vital source of food and milk for the Sámi, but they also relied on them for transportation, fur for clothes, sinews for sewing, antlers and bones for tools, weapons, and ritual objects.5 Female reindeer were particularly revered by the Sámi. They are larger and stronger than the males, and they establish the social hierarchies of the herd, as well as forage and defend their territories. Reindeer mate in autumn and the males shed their antlers at mating time in response to higher levels of testosterone. During the winter months, the pregnant female reindeer develop antlers, which they shed after giving birth in spring or early summer.6
Sámi folklore tells of magical reindeer that fly through the night sky. They are also connected to the folklore surrounding the hallucinogenic effects of the Amanita muscaria mushroom, more commonly known as the toadstool mushroom or fly agaric. Emily Buder wrote for The Atlantic (2018):7
Until just a few hundred years ago, the story goes, the indigenous Sami people of Lapland, a wintry region in northern Finland dense with conifer forests, would wait in their houses on the Winter Solstice to be visited by shamans. These shamans would perform healing rituals using the hallucinogenic mushroom Amanita muscaria, a red-and-white toadstool fungus that they considered holy. So holy, in fact, that the shamans dressed up like the mushrooms for their visit. Wearing large red-and-white suits, the shamans would arrive at the front doors of houses and attempt to enter; however, many families were snowed in, and the healers were forced to drop down the chimney. They would act as conduits between the spirit and human world, bringing gifts of introspection that could solve the family’s problems. Upon arrival, the healers were regaled with food. They would leave as they came: on reindeer drawn sleds.
It is said this mushroom makes people feel like they are flying or ‘journeying’ and is the reason for the name fly agaric. These stories likely captured the imagination of neighbouring European cultures and influenced the popular image of Santa Claus and his flying reindeer, which would have been female with their winter antlers. Reindeer were known to search out and eat Amanita muscaria and their urine was ritually drunk to induce hallucinations without the sickness that accompanies eating the mushroom itself. The shaman also sacrificed themselves in this way, eating the mushroom and suffering the ill effects so that their urine could be drunk by those in attendance, who would be able to ‘journey’ without being sick.
Cult of the Reindeer Mother
Within Sámi folklore, the Reindeer Mother, also known as the Máttaráhkká is a divine and powerful figure associated with fertility, abundance, and the wellbeing of reindeer herds. She is believed to be the protector and caretaker of the reindeer, ensuring their survival and prosperity and thus the survival and prosperity of their human herders. The Reindeer Mother was often depicted with her neck outstretched and her legs splayed out as if running or flying. Her antlers were said to represent the Tree of Life, carrying birds, the sun, the moon, and stars.
Winter solstice held great significance for the Sami. An ancient Sami folktale tells the story of the Reindeer Mother, who was said to travel across the southern horizon at winter solstice to bring back to the world the life-giving sun between her antlers. The Reindeer Mother volunteered to sacrifice her own heart and implanted it at the centre of creation so that her heartbeat and blood pulsed life into all creatures, resurrecting them from the frozen dark of winter. One winter solstice tradition involves smearing warm butter on doorposts as a sacrifice to Beavi, the Sami Sun Goddess associated with reindeer, fertility, and motherhood. Beavi gained strength from the sacrificial butter to fly higher and higher into the sky, after the winter solstice. She was often accompanied by her daughter in an enclosure of reindeer antlers, or a sled made of antlers and pulled by reindeer.
The cult of the Reindeer Mother is an ancient spiritual tradition that dates back thousands of years and has survived through the Sámi culture. Reindeer are also considered sacred to the indigenous peoples of Siberia and Mongolia, who share similar beliefs about the reindeer and their connection to the seasonal cycles.8
The Deer Cult
Further south, the Deer Cult was more widespread and is still an important part of indigenous cultures such as the Ojibwe and Menominee tribes of North America, where the Dear Clan represents leadership and protection. Echoes of the Deer Cult can still be found in Scandinavian cultures, where the deer holds significant symbolic value in folklore and mythology. For example, the Norse god Freyr, associated with fertility and abundance, is often depicted with deer antlers. In Lithuania and Latvia, the sun goddess Saule was said to fly across the heavens at the winter solstice in a sleigh pulled by horned reindeer, throwing beads of amber and apples down through people’s chimneys. Rohanitsa, Ukraine's winter goddess, was frequently depicted with antlers growing out of her head.
The Deer Cult is also connected to Celtic folklore, particularly in Scotland and Ireland9. In Celtic myth and folklore, the deer symbolises strength, agility, and wisdom. In one story, the hero Fionn Mac Cumhail chases a magical deer that leads him to the “Otherworld”, a mystical realm beyond the physical world. Deer, particularly the ‘White Stag’ appear in medieval folktales such as the Arthurian legends. The deer is also associated with Cernunnos, the Celtic god of fertility, wealth, and the underworld. In some Celtic traditions, it is believed the souls of the dead take the form of a white deer and roam the forests.
The Cailleach, who we met in a previous article on The Winter Queens, is often associated with deer. She is sometimes depicted as a shapeshifter who can transform into a deer or she is accompanied by a herd of deer. There are many folktales telling of her animosity towards hunters who disrespect the laws of nature, especially those who try to poach her precious herd of deer.
The Sámi people and their rich traditions centred around reindeer have undeniably influenced global folklore and the beloved figure of Santa Claus. With their deep connection to reindeer herding and the enchanting Arctic landscape, the Sámi have contributed to the mythos of Santa's sleigh being pulled by these majestic creatures. Their nomadic lifestyle, close relationship with reindeer, and association with the winter season resonate with the enduring image of Santa Claus and his magical journey. The Sami's cultural practices and beliefs, rooted in the pristine Arctic environment, continue to evoke echoes of the ice age, captivating the imagination of people worldwide and adding a touch of enchantment to the festive season.
In the next article, we will delve into the winter solstice traditions of the Celts, Germanic peoples, and ancient Romans. Recipes for a winter solstice feast will be included. Until next time!
Little, A. et al (2016). Technological Analysis of the World’s Earliest Shamanic Costume: A Multi-Scalar, Experimental Study of a Red Deer Headdress from the Early Holocene Site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire, UK. PLoS ONE. Link here.
Arctic Religions: An Overview. Encyclopedia.com
a) Foster, J. Reindeer Herding in Norway, Sami Culture, University of Texas, b) Samuelson, F. The Sámi People: Pastoralism vs. Agriculture, Sami Culture, University of Texas, c) Tamborra, V. (2022). The Sami, the People of the Ice Lands. InsideOver.
Benko, J. (2011). Sami: The People Who Walk With Reindeer. National Geographic Magazine.
a) Mykhailova, N. (2006). The Cult of the Deer and "Shamans" in the Deer Hunting Societies. Archaeologica Baltica. b) Mykhailova, N. (2016). Shaman - Hunter - Deer. Andoranten.
Roberts, F. (2017). Wait ...Was Santa a Female Shaman?: The Deer Mother and The Christmas Witch. The Overcast.
Bruder, E. (2023). 'Santa Is a Psychedelic Mushroom': A Theory of Shamans, Amanita Muscaria, and Flying Reindeer. The Atlantic.