The History and Traditions of the Twelve Days of Christmas and Twelfth Night
The Twelve Days of Christmas is commonly believed to be a Christian tradition beginning with the birth of Jesus on December 25th (Christmas Day) and lasting until January 5th, known as Twelfth Night or Epiphany. However, the traditions surrounding the Twelve Days and Twelfth Night have their roots in much older pre-Christian traditions. In this article we explore the pagan roots of the Twelve Days of Christmas, the raucous fun of Twelfth Night, and the beloved Christmas carol Twelve Days of Christmas. We also revisit the tradition of the King Cake and learn about the charming Italian celebration of La Befana, the Christmas witch.
Pre-Christian Winter Festivities
Yule, a precursor to Christmas, was celebrated by the ancient Nordic and Germanic peoples, starting on the night of the winter solstice, around 21 December (in the northern hemisphere) until the first full moon after the solstice, which varied from year to year. This time was marked by feasting and sacrifices or Jólablót, which eventually developed into the Yule log tradition, as we learned in a previous article.
We’ve also learned in another article that the ancient Romans marked the winter solstice with the festival of Saturnalia, which began on 17 December1 and involved sacrifices in honour of the god Saturn, followed by public banquets, private gift-giving and continual partying on the streets and in homes. The festivities climaxed on 25 December (winter solstice in the old Julian calendar) with Dei del Sol Invictus (Birthday of the Invincible Sun) and culminated with Kalends on 1 January and the start of the new year.
All levels of Roman society participated in the festivities, in which no work or business was conducted, social norms were overturned, gambling was allowed and roles were reversed, clothes were swapped between freemen and slaves, and masters served their slaves food. During public gatherings and for festivities in the home, a ‘king’ or ruler of Saturnalia, the Saturnalia princeps, ruler of chaos, was appointed by lot and was responsible for making mischief such as insulting guests, wearing animal skins, chasing women and issuing capricious orders.
Twelve Days of Christmas in the Middle Ages
We have already explored the origins of Christmas in a previous article, which describes the absorption of pagan winter festivities into Christian traditions, the Puritan crackdown on Christmas and the Victorian revival. The Puritan opposition to Christmas stemmed from the ‘debauchery, drunkenness, gluttony, gambling, licentious behaviour and pagan practices’ that marked Christmas celebrations, especially during the Middle Ages in Europe. After the fasting month of Advent, the Twelve Days of Christmas were celebrated with feasts and revelry. Serfs and servants were allowed twelve days off work, gambling and public drinking were permitted, and raucous and lewd behaviour was tolerated.
The Twelve Days of Christmas culminated on 5 January, the evening before Epiphany, when the wise men or Magi were believed by Christians to have arrived in Bethlehem and met the newborn Jesus. This night, popularly called Twelfth Night, was marked by feasting and revelry in which a temporary Lord or King of Misrule was appointed, usually by lot or the King Cake tradition, and who presided over the revelries, games, and plays, mirroring the Roman Saturnalia princeps tradition. Revellers would often dress up as animals or cross-dress, travelling door to door singing festive folk songs and telling jokes in the tradition of mumming or guising, which merged with the tradition of wassailing and evolved into the more ‘respectable’ tradition of carolling, which we have already explored in a previous article.
Although Twelfth Night is normally celebrated on 5 January, some regions celebrate it on 6 January and some places, particularly in the English apple-growing regions of Suffolk, Kent, Somerset, Herefordshire and Devon celebrate it with wassailing on 17 January, commemorating the tradition according to the old Julian calendar.
The medieval traditions of Twelfth Night are recorded in many sources, including William Shakespeare's play, Twelfth Night, which was commissioned by Queen Elizabeth I of England for the Twelfth Night celebrations at Whitehall Palace on 6 January 1601 to mark the end of the embassy of the Italian diplomat, the Duke of Orsino.
The Twelve Days of Christmas (Carol)
The Twelve Days of Christmas is a Christmas carol that has remained popular for hundreds of years. According to historical accounts, the carol was originally played as a memory-and-forfeits game, where participants recited each cumulative verse, sometimes in one breath. If a player made a mistake or forgot a verse, they had to pay a penalty, such as offering a kiss or a treat.
"The Twelve Days" was a Christmas game. It was a customary thing in a friend's house to play "The Twelve Days," or "My Lady's Lap Dog," every Twelfth Day night. The party was usually a mixed gathering of juveniles and adults, mostly relatives, and before supper — that is, before eating mince pies and twelfth cake — this game and the cushion dance were played, and the forfeits consequent upon them always cried. The company were all seated round the room. The leader of the game commenced by saying the first line. [...] The lines for the "first day" of Christmas was said by each of the company in turn; then the first "day" was repeated, with the addition of the "second" by the leader, and then this was said all round the circle in turn. This was continued until the lines for the "twelve days" were said by every player. For every mistake a forfeit — a small article belonging to the person — had to be given up. These forfeits were afterwards "cried" in the usual way, and were not returned to the owner until they had been redeemed by the penalty inflicted being performed. Lady Gomme. 1898
The earliest documented appearances of the lyrics for The Twelve Days of Christmas can be traced back to two sources. One is an illustrated children's book titled Mirth Without Mischief, which was published in London in 1780. The other is a broadsheet by Angus of Newcastle, believed to be from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries.
The carol has been set to various melodies over time, with the most recognizable versions stemming from a 1909 arrangement of a traditional folk melody by English composer Frederic Austin. A modern version of The Twelve Days of Christmas is sung by the Pentatonix in the video (3:20 mins) below.
Feast of Fools
Twelfth Night traditions became so popular in medieval Europe that even the clergy celebrated their own Feast of Fools on 1 January, which involved role reversals that inverted the usual hierarchy, where a fool was turned into a pope and sub-deacons delivered sermons. The practice was condemned and banned in the 15th century as:
Priests and clerks may be seen wearing masks and monstrous visages at the hours of office… They dance in the choir dressed as women, panders or minstrels. They sing wanton songs. They eat black puddings… while the celebrant is saying mass. They play at dice… They run and leap through the church, without a blush at their own shame. Unknown French theologian in 1445.
The Feast of Fools tradition originated in France in the 1100s and although it was banned in the 1400s, it was still a common tradition well into the 16th century. The Feast of Fools is described in Victor Hugo’s book The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831), and depicted in Disney’s animated film of the same name, in which the protagonist, hunch-backed Quasimodo is ‘voluntold’ as the King of Fools. Watch this short clip (2:17 mins) of Quasimodo’s election to the King of Fools for Topsy Turvy (Disney’s name for Feast of Fools).
King Cake
Another Twelfth Night tradition that we have explored in a previous article on Yule and Christmas feasting traditions is the King Cake, which is typically a ring-shaped cake made from rich, yeasted dough often flavoured with hints of cinnamon or nutmeg. A small trinket, figurine, or dried bean known as a fève (French for bean) is baked into the cake, representing the baby Jesus. The three spices used in the recipe represent the Magi. Whoever discovers the trinket or bean in their slice is crowned the ‘king’ or ‘queen’ of the festivities and given a golden paper crown to wear. This person is then responsible for hosting the next gathering or providing the King Cake for the following year. The tradition is still popular in Germany, France, Spain, and Portugal, and various regions influenced by these cultures.
La Befana
Italy’s La Befana is a witch who is associated with the celebration of Twelfth Night or Epiphany on 6 January. La Befana is depicted as an old woman covered in soot, wearing a tattered shawl, who travels on a broomstick, visiting children's homes during the night to deliver gifts and treats. Her name, Befana, is said to be derived from the Italian word Epifania (Epiphany). While La Befana has strong Christian ties, her story also has roots in pre-Christian traditions.
During the pre-Christian celebration of Saturnalia, the Roman goddess Strenia, associated with the New Year and gift-giving, was revered. It is believed that La Befana's origins can be traced back to this pagan goddess. Over time, as Christian traditions merged with pagan customs, La Befana became associated with the Epiphany and the visit of the Three Wise Men to baby Jesus.
In Italy, the celebration of La Befana is marked by various customs and traditions. On the eve of 6 January, children hang stockings or socks by the fireplace, hoping that La Befana will fill them with presents. It is believed that she enters through the chimney, just like Santa Claus. Some regions of Italy even hold parades and festivals in her honour, featuring costumed performers and lively music.
Befana dolls are sold at Christmas markets all over Italy.
La Befana and her celebration remain popular throughout Italy, not only as a beloved character but also as an embodiment of the magic and wonder of the holiday season in Italy, bridging the gap between ancient traditions and modern celebrations.
In the next article, we will delve into the fascinating Nordic tradition of Julbok, the Yule Goat. In the meantime, Glaedelig Yule!!!
The Julian calendar used by ancient Romans meant that the winter solstice fell on 25 December, rather than 21/22 December in the Gregorian calendar that we currently use.
I had a great time reading this! I was vaguely aware of some of these traditions but not all of them. Now I really understand why my parents banned Christmas because it was 'pagan'.